in modern republics, the chief executive and, therefore, the highest officer in a government. Many nations of the world, including the United States,
The enforced servitude of one person (a slave) to another or one group to another. A slave has no personal rights and is considered the property of
The American Civil War began in April 1861 and ended in April 1865. Those four years transformed American society. Over six hundred thousand men died,
US Supreme Court decision of 1857 which denied ‘blacks’ (African Americans) US citizenship and made slavery legal in all US territories. The decision
fortification, built 1829–60, on a shoal at the entrance to the harbor of Charleston, S.C., and named for Gen. Thomas Sumter ; scene of the opening
American political party. The name was first used by Thomas Jefferson's party, later called the Democratic Republican party or, simply, the Democratic
American political party; the oldest continuous political party in the United States. When political alignments first emerged in George Washington's
1767-1848 Sixth President of the United States The political career of John Quincy Adams spanned 70 years, from the American Revolution to the Mexican
1735-1826 Second President of the United States After a distinguished career during the American Revolution, John Adams continued to serve his country
1758–1831, 5th President of the United States (1817–25), b. Westmoreland co., Va. Leaving the College of William and Mary in 1776 to fight in the
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Jefferson, Thomas (1743 - 1826)
1743-1826 Statesman and Third President of the United States As author of the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson had helped to define
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Calhoun, John C. (John Caldwell), 1782-1850
(kăl´´hōn'), 1782–1850, American statesman and political philosopher, b. near Abbeville, S.C., grad. Yale, 1804. He was an intellectual giant of
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Arrow, Kenneth Joseph, 1921-
US economist. With French-born US economist Gerard Debreu he developed the first rigorous proof of the existence of general equilibrium in a
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Hayek, Friedrich A. von (Friedrich August), 1899-1992
Friedrich Hayek (pronounced HI-YACK) achieved worldwide recognition as a champion of the free market and opponent of government intervention in
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Madison, James (1751 - 1836)
1751–1836, 4th President of the United States (1809–17), b. Port Conway, Va. A member of the Virginia planter class, he attended the College of New
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Friedman, Milton, 1912-2006
Milton Friedman was an American economist and leading representative of the Chicago School during the last half of the 20th century. Friedman received
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Johnson, Lyndon (1908 - 1973)
1908–73, 36th President of the United States (1963–69), b. near Stonewall, Tex. Born into a farm family, he graduated (1930) from Southwest Texas
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Truman, Harry S. (1884 - 1972)
1884–1972, 33d President of the United States, b. Lamar, Mo. He grew up on a farm near Independence, Mo., worked at various jobs, and tended the
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Bryan, William Jennings, 1860-1925
1860-1925 Three-time Democratic Presidential Candidate and U.S. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan was one of the most prominent politicians
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Topic
Roosevelt, Franklin D. (1882-1945)
(dĕl'Әnō rō'zӘvĕlt), 1882–1945, 32d President of the United States (1933–45), b. Hyde Park, N.Y. Through both his father, James Roosevelt, and his
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Eisenhower, Dwight (1890 - 1969)
(ī'zӘnhou´´Әr), 1890–1969, American general and 34th President of the United States, b. Denison, Tex.; his nickname was “Ike.” When he was two years
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Lincoln, Abraham, 1809-1865
Abraham Lincoln (the “Great Emancipator”) was the sixteenth president of the United States. Born in a log cabin on the Kentucky frontier, near
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Frisch, Ragnar (1895 - 1973)
Norwegian economist. He shared the first Nobel Prize for Economics in 1969 with Jan Tinbergen , a Dutch economist, for pioneering efforts in
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Reagan, Ronald (1911 - 2004)
1911-2004 Fortieth President of the United States Ronald Reagan, the fortieth president of the United States, restored the American people's
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Carter, Jimmy, 1924-
born 1924 Thirty-ninth President of the United States Thirty-ninth president of the United States, Nobel Peace Prize recipient, and human rights
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Seward, William (1801 - 1872)
1801–72, American statesman, b. Florida, Orange co., N.Y. A graduate (1820) of Union College, he was admitted to the bar in 1822 and established
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Modigliani, Franco (1918 - 2003)
Italian-born US economist, noted for his ‘lifecycle hypothesis’ and Modigliani–Miller theorem, established with US economist Merton Miller . He was
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Lewis, William Arthur (1915 - 1991)
British economist. His Theory of Economic Growth (1955) was one of the first textbooks in the post-war era to explore the problems of the developing
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Sen, Amartya (Kumar) (Nov 3, 1933 - )
Amartya Kumar Sen, Indian economist and philosopher, was born on November 3, 1933, in Santiniketan in the province of West Bengal in India. He was
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Kantorovich, Leonid (Vitalyevich) (Jan 19, 1912 - Apr 7, 1986)
Soviet mathematical economist who shared the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1975 with Dutch-born US economist Tjalling Koopmans for the independent
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Dewey, John (1859 - 1952)
John Dewey was a highly influential twentieth-century American philosopher and perhaps the nation’s foremost educational theorist. Along with Charles
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Simon, Herbert (Jun 15, 1916 - 2001)
US social scientist, computer scientist, and economic psychologist. Much of Simon's career was focused on attacking the economist's concept of
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Blaine, James Gillespie, 1830-1893
1830–93, American politician, b. West Brownsville, Pa. Blaine taught school and studied law before moving (1854) to Maine, where he became an
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Fillmore, Millard (1800 - 1874)
1800–1874, 13th President of the United States (July, 1850–Mar., 1853), b. Locke (now Summer Hill), N.Y. Because he was compelled to work at odd jobs
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Rusk, David Dean (1909 - 1994)
US Democrat politician. He was secretary of state to presidents J F Kennedy and L B Johnson 1961–69, and became unpopular through his involvement with
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Topic
Harding, Warren G. (Warren Gamaliel), 1865-1923
(gӘmā'lēӘl), 1865–1923, 29th President of the United States (1921–23), b. Blooming Grove (now Corsica), Ohio. After study (1879–82) at Ohio Central
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Sharpe, William F.
US economist. Sharpe shared the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1990 with US economists Harry Markowitz and Merton Miller for extending Markowitz's
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Topic
Hicks, John, 1904-1989
English economist. Hicks is celebrated for his invention of the IS–LM diagram, which expounds the true meaning of English economist John Maynard
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Jackson, Andrew (1767 - 1845)
The seventh American president, Andrew Jackson, is called by many historians the first popularly elected president of the United States. His first
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Bush, George W. (George Walker), 1946-
1946–, 43d President of the United States (2001–9), b. New Haven, Conn. The eldest son of President George H. W. Bush , he was was raised in Texas
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Webster, Daniel, 1782-1852
1782–1852, American statesman, lawyer, and orator, b. Salisbury (now in Franklin), N.H. He graduated (1801) from Dartmouth College, studied law, and,
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Rice, Condoleezza (1954 - )
US politician, national security advisor 2001–04 and secretary of state 2005–09. As secretary of state, she launched a diplomatic initiative aimed at
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Topic
Nash, John F. (1928 - 2015)
US mathematician. Nash's work on game theory, published in a number of papers in the early 1950s, attracted little attention at the time. By the
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Pierce, Franklin (1804 - 1869)
1804–69, 14th President of the United States (1853–57), b. Hillsboro, N.H., grad. Bowdoin College, 1824. Admitted to the bar in 1827, he entered
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Morris, Robert, 1734-1806
1734–1806, American merchant, known as the “financier of the American Revolution,” and signer of the Declaration of Independence, b. Liverpool,
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Topic
Acheson, Dean, 1893-1971
(ăch'ĭsӘn), 1893–1971, U.S. secretary of state (1949–52), b. Middletown, Conn., grad. Yale, Harvard Law School. He was (1919–21) private secretary to
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Cleveland, (Stephen) Grover (1837 - 1908)
22nd and 24th president of the USA, 1885–89 and 1893–97; the first Democratic president elected after the Civil War. He attempted to check corruption
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Topic
Pickering, Timothy (1745 - 1829)
1745–1829, American political leader and Revolutionary War army officer, b. Salem, Mass. He was admitted to the bar (1768) and played an active part
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Topic
Hayes, Rutherford Birchard, 1822-1893
1822–93, 19th President of the United States (1877–81), b. Delaware, Ohio, grad. Kenyon College, 1843, and Harvard law school, 1845. He became a
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Topic
Sherman, John (1823 - 1900)
1823–1900, American statesman, b. Lancaster, Ohio; brother of William Tecumseh Sherman. He studied law, was admitted (1844) to the bar, and practiced
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Topic
Randolph, Edmund (1753 - 1813)
1753–1813, American statesman, b. Williamsburg, Va.; nephew of Peyton Randolph. He studied law under his father, John Randolph, a Loyalist who went to
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Topic
Leontief, Wassily (1906 - 1999)
Russian-born US economist whose entire life has been devoted to the development and refinement of a single technical tool, input–output analysis,
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Topic
Polk, James (1795 - 1849)
(pōk), 1795–1849, 11th President of the United States (1845–49), b. Mecklenburg co., N.C. His family moved (1806) to the Duck River valley in
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Ford, Gerald R., 1913-2006
1913–2006, 38th president of the United States (1974–77), b. Omaha, Nebr. He was originally named Leslie Lynch King, Jr., but his parents were
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Topic
Miller, Merton H. (1923 - 2000)
US economist. Miller shared the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1990 with US economists Harry Markowitz and William Sharpe for pioneering theories on
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Topic
Taylor, Zachary (1784 - 1850)
(zăk'Әrē), 1784–1850, 12th President of the United States (1849–50), b. Orange co., Va. He was raised in Kentucky. Taylor joined the army in 1808,
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Washington, George, 1732-1799
America's first military hero, first president, and first citizen for all time, George Washington was born at Bridge's Creek in Westmoreland County,
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Marshall, John (1755 - 1835)
1755–1835, American jurist, 4th chief justice of the United States (1801–35), b. Virginia. The eldest of 15 children, John Marshall was born in a log
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Topic
Meade, James Edward (1907 - 1995)
English Keynesian economist who shared the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1977 with Swedish economist Bertil Ohlin for his work on international trade.
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Topic
Lucas, Robert (1937 - )
US economist. Lucas did not invent the theory of rational expectations but he has been its most vigorous advocate, insisting that, because the
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Topic
Coase, R. H. (Ronald Harry)
Ronald H. Coase is a Nobel laureate economist from the University of Chicago. Coase was born in England and studied commerce at the London School of
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Lansing, Robert (1864 - 1928)
1864–1928, U.S. Secretary of State (1915–20), b. Watertown, N.Y. An authority in the field of international law, he founded the American Journal of
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White, Andrew Dickson, 1832-1918
1832–1918, American educator and diplomat, b. Homer, N.Y., briefly attended Geneva (now Hobart) College, grad. Yale, 1853. He studied in France and
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Topic
Fogel, Robert William
US economic historian who shared the Nobel Prize for Economics with Douglass North for creating ‘cliometrics’, or the New Quantitative Economic
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Topic
Stigler, George (1911 - 1991)
US economist. His analysis of wage rate differences in labour markets is the starting-point of all later work on ‘search models’ of unemployment,
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Topic
Mundell, Robert (1932 - )
Canadian economist who received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1999 for his analysis of the optimum currency area and his work on the scope of
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Topic
Harrison, William Henry, 1773-1841
1773-1841 Ninth President of the United States William Henry Harrison, inaugurated at age sixty-eight, was, until Ronald Reagan, the oldest American
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Kuznets, Simon (1901 - 1985)
Russian-born US economist. Kuznets was awarded the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1971 for his pre-war efforts in reconstructing the national income and
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Topic
Evarts, William Maxwell (1818 - 1901)
(ĕv'Әrts), 1818–1901, American lawyer and statesman, b. Boston; grandson of Roger Sherman. After attending Harvard Law School he began (1841) to
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Topic
Becker, Gary S. (Gary Stanley), 1930-
US economist. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1992 for his work on a comprehensive economic theory of all aspects of human behaviour.
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Topic
Solow, Robert (Merton) (1924 - )
US economist, known primarily for his ground-breaking work on growth theory in the 1950s and 1960s. Solow also contributed to macroeconomic analysis
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Topic
Hughes, Charles Evans (1862 - 1948)
(hyōz), 1862–1948, American statesman and jurist, associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1910–16), U.S. secretary of state (1921–25), and 11th
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Kissinger, Henry (1923 - )
German-born US diplomat. After a brilliant academic career at Harvard University, he was appointed national security adviser in 1969 by President
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Marshall, George (1880 - 1959)
Military and Diplomatic Leader, Nobel Peace Prize Winner As head of the U.S. Army between September 1939 and November 1945, George C. Marshall played
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Ohlin, Bertil, 1899-1979
Swedish economist and political leader. He shared the 1977 Nobel Prize for Economics with the English economist James Meade for contributions to the
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Topic
McKinley, William, 1843-1901
1843–1901, 25th president of the United States (1897–1901), b. Niles, Ohio. He was educated at Poland (Ohio) Seminary and Allegheny College. After
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Baker, James Addison, 1930-
US Republican politician and lawyer. Under President Ronald Reagan , he was White House chief of staff 1981–85 and treasury secretary 1985–88. After
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Taft, William Howard (1857 - 1930)
1857–1930, 27th President of the United States (1909–13) and 10th chief justice of the United States (1921–30), b. Cincinnati. After graduating (1878)
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Bush, George, 1924-2018
1924–, 41st President of the United States (1989–93), b. Milton, Mass., B.A., Yale Univ., 1948. His father, Prescott Bush, was a successful investment
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Kennedy, John (1917-1963)
Keywords Cuba U.S. Presidents Asian Powers Born in Brookline, Massachusetts, in 1917, John Fitzgerald Kennedy (JFK) (1917–1963) became one of the most
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Harsanyi, John C.
John C. Harsanyi, one of the leading game theorists of his generation, was awarded the 1994 Nobel Prize in Economics jointly with John F. Nash and
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Stevens, Thaddeus (1792 - 1868)
1792–1868, U.S. Representative from Pennsylvania (1849–53, 1859–68), b. Danville, Vt. He taught in an academy at York, Pa., studied law, and was
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Nash, John, 1752-1835
English architect. His large country-house practice, established about 1796 with the landscape gardener Humphry Repton , used a wide variety of
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Rand, Ayn (1905 - 1982)
Ayn Rand's (1905–82) philosophy of rational selfishness, limited government, individualism, and moral capitalism, expressed in her bestselling novels
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Debreu, Gerard
French-born US economist. He developed mathematical economic models with US economist Kenneth Arrow , and in 1954 they published an epoch-making paper
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Selten, Reinhard (1930 - 2016)
German economist who has made significant contributions to dynamic game theory and was one of the first to develop game theory as a behavioural study
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Topic
Dworkin, Ronald
1931–2013, American legal philosopher. b. Worcester, Mass. A professor at Yale (1962–75), Oxford (1969–98), New York Univ. (1975–2013), and University
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Taney, Roger (Brooke) (1777 - 1864)
(tô'nē), 1777–1864, American jurist, 5th chief justice of the United States (1836–64), b. Calvert co., Md., grad. Dickinson College, 1795. Taney was
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Maskin, Eric Stark (1950 - )
US mathematician and economist. He won the 2007 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences in 2007 for his work on the foundations of mechanism design theory,
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Topic
Heckman, James J. (James Joseph)
US economist. Heckman developed methods for evaluating economic and social programmes involving taxes, subsidies, and affirmative action policies, for
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Marcy, William (1786 - 1857)
1786–1857, American politician, b. Southbridge, Mass. He settled in Troy, N.Y., where he practiced law and, after serving in the War of 1812, held
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Samuelson, Paul A. (Paul Anthony) (1915 - 2009)
US economist. His major works include Foundations of Economic Analysis (1947) and Economics (1948). In 1970 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for
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Garfield, James (1831 - 1881)
1831–81, 20th President of the United States (Mar.–Sept., 1881). Born on a frontier farm in Cuyahoga co., Ohio, he spent his early years in poverty.
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North, Douglass C. (Douglass Cecil)
US economic historian at the forefront of the ‘new wave’ that swept through economic history in the 1960s and which attempted to apply the standard
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Merton, Robert C. (1944 - )
US economist, known for his role in developing the Black and Scholes model , a valuation formula for pricing stock options. Merton and Canadian-born
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Stone, John Richard Nicholas (1913 - 1991)
English economist and statistician, awarded the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1984, jointly with English economist James Meade , for pioneering
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Topic
Markowitz, Harry M. (1927 - )
US economist. He shared the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1990 with US economists Merton Miller and William Sharpe for pioneering the theory of
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Roosevelt, Theodore (1858 - 1919)
President of the United States from 1901 through 1909, Theodore Roosevelt believed in giving all Americans a “square deal” and worked to create a
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Johnson, Andrew (1808 - 1875)
1808–75, 17th President of the United States (1865–69), b. Raleigh, N.C. His father died when Johnson was 3, and at 14 he was apprenticed to a tailor.
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Hoover, Herbert, 1874-1964
1874–1964, 31st President of the United States (1929–33), b. West Branch, Iowa. After graduating (1895) from Stanford, he worked as a mining engineer
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Clay, Henry (1777 - 1852)
1777–1852, American statesman, b. Hanover co., Va. His father died when he was four years old, and Clay's formal schooling was limited to three years.
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Sumner, Charles (1811 - 1874)
1811–74, U.S. senator from Massachusetts (1851–74), b. Boston. He attended (1831–33) and was later a lecturer at Harvard law school, was admitted
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Allais, Maurice (1911 - 2010)
French economist who won the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1988 for his contributions to the concept of efficiency in the use of resources via the
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Topic
Hay, John, 1838-1905
Keywords Panama Nicaragua Colombia U.S. Secretaries of State European Powers John Milton Hay (1838–1905) served as secretary of state under presidents
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Tobin, James, 1918-2002
US economist. Tobin was the USA's most distinguished Keynesian economist, meaning not only that he refused to embrace monetarism, but also that he
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Tyler, John (1790 - 1862)
1790–1862, 10th President of the United States, b. Charles City co., Va. Educated at the College of William and Mary, he studied law under his father,
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Grant, Ulysses (1822 - 1885)
1822–85, commander in chief of the Union army in the Civil War and 18th President (1869–77) of the United States, b. Point Pleasant, Ohio. He was
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Fish, Hamilton (1808 - 1893)
Fish was a congressman and senator from the state of New York prior to serving as secretary of state from 1869 to 1877. In October 1868, five months
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Kahneman, Daniel (1934 - )
Daniel Kahneman is one of the most renowned psychologists of the twentieth century. His awards include the American Psychological Association’s
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Dulles, John Foster (1888 - 1959)
dŭl'Әs, 1888–1959, U.S. secretary of state (1953–59), b. Washington, D.C.; brother of Allen Dulles , grandson of John Watson Foster , secretary of
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Prescott, Edward C. (1940 - )
US economist. He received the 2004 Nobel Prize for Economics for his research on business cycles and time consistency in macroeconomic policy, an
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Mirrlees, James (Alexander) (Jul 5, 1936 - 1996)
Scottish economist who won the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1996, with Canadian-born US economist William Vickrey , for fundamental contributions to
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Nozick, Robert
Robert Nozick was a writer, a philosopher, and, at one time, a leading supporter of libertarian thought. Two Harvard professors resuscitated political
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Vickrey, William S. (William Spencer), 1914-1996
Canadian-born US economist. A Quaker and conscientious objector during World War II, Vickrey spent his alternative service designing a new inheritance
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Gallatin, Albert, 1761-1849
(găl'Әtĭn), 1761–1849, American financier and public official, b. Geneva, Switzerland. Left an orphan at nine, Gallatin was reared by his patrician
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Rawls, John, 1921-2002
Rawls is the most important political philosopher of the twentieth century. He spent virtually his entire career at Havard, and published a series of
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Myrdal, (Karl) Gunnar (1898 - 1987)
Swedish economist, sociologist, and politician. The Political Element in the Development of Economic Theory (1953), originally published in Swedish in
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Nixon, Richard M. (Richard Milhous), 1913-1994
1913-1994 Thirty-seventh President of the United States Richard Milhous Nixon dominated American politics from the 1950s through the 1970s. A man of
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Root, Elihu (1845 - 1937)
1845–1937, American cabinet member and diplomat, b. Clinton, N.Y. Admitted to the bar in 1867, he practiced law in New York City, became prominent in
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Stimson, Henry (1867 - 1930)
1867–1950, American statesman, b. New York City. A graduate of Yale and of Harvard, he became associated with Elihu Root in law practice in New York
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Schultz, Theodore (1902 - 1998)
US agricultural economist. In addition to producing his own work in agriculture, Schultz was an effective popularizer and disseminator of the ideas of
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Klein, Lawrence R. (Lawrence Robert), 1920-2013
US economist. Klein was a leading figure in the golden period of econometric model-building, especially the big econometric model with hundreds of
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Tinbergen, Jan (1903 - 1994)
Dutch economist. Tinbergen's work was focused on econometrics (the mathematical-statistical expression of economic theory), with studies of the US and